tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5843645.post111499212161409638..comments2023-09-28T09:59:14.252-04:00Comments on அனாதையின் வலைப்பதிவுகள்: Unknownnoreply@blogger.comBlogger10125tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5843645.post-70391148412045592992008-12-11T01:33:00.000-05:002008-12-11T01:33:00.000-05:00அன்புடையீர்,நாங்கள் ஆழி பதிப்பகத்திலிருந்து தொடர்ப...அன்புடையீர்,<BR/><BR/>நாங்கள் ஆழி பதிப்பகத்திலிருந்து தொடர்புகொள்கிறோம். அமரர் சுஜாதா நினைவு அறிவியல் புனைகதை போட்டி தொடர்பாக உங்களுக்கு ஒரு மடல் அனுப்பவேண்டும். தங்கள் மின்னஞ்சல் முகவரியை sujatha.scifi@gmail.com க்கு அனுப்புங்கள். தொடர்புகொள்கிறோம்.<BR/><BR/>நன்றிசெந்தில்.Rhttps://www.blogger.com/profile/06921480119159556398noreply@blogger.comtag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5843645.post-1115092717593007302005-05-02T23:58:00.000-04:002005-05-02T23:58:00.000-04:00The following should help to understand why DNA te...The following should help to understand why DNA tests are contoversial.But those who have naive faith in science and still<BR/>thinking in terms of 19th century concepts of race may not like it.<BR/>Dont worry soon hindutva groups will ask for such a test to determine who is an Indian and who is not.I am sure that many of you<BR/>will understand the political implications of such tests only then.<BR/>-----------------------------------<BR/>[Previously published in The Native Voice (Dec. 3-17, 2004), D2]<BR/>“Native American DNA” Tests: What are the Risks to Tribes?<BR/>Kim TallBear<BR/><BR/>Deborah A. Bolnick<BR/><BR/>Does DNA make an Indian?<BR/><BR/>In Red Earth, White Lies (Scribner, 1995), Vine Deloria Jr. muses about the dramatic rise in people<BR/>self-identifying as Native American since the political upheavals of the 1960s. Deloria asks:<BR/>“can whites really become Indians? A good many people seriously want to know.”<BR/>Deloria did not refer to “Native American DNA”, but the question he poses is one that many<BR/>people are hoping DNA can answer. In this age of genetic determinism, when many Americans<BR/>believe that identity, kinship, and race are determined by one’s genes, more and more people<BR/>are turning to DNA testing to validate their claims of Native American ancestry. At least<BR/>fourteen companies now sell Native American DNA tests ($80-600, depending on the type of<BR/>test ordered). After rubbing a sterile cotton swab on the inside of the cheek and sending it in a<BR/>vial to the DNA testing company, the test taker will be told if he or she possesses particular<BR/>genetic markers that are commonly found in individuals with Native American ancestry. Test<BR/>takers also receive a frameable document certifying their genetic ancestral affiliation.<BR/>Since 30 million Americans have set up websites tracing their family histories and 80% of those<BR/>surveyed by the genealogy portal RootsWeb.com say that it would be important to use DNA to<BR/>determine their ancestry, these DNA tests have the potential to influence many people.<BR/>Unfortunately, this may mean trouble for tribes. Will Native American DNA tests be used to<BR/>challenge tribal rights and governance authority?<BR/>DNA companies profit while tribes may lose out<BR/>In the September 22, 2004 Indian Country Today, an advertisement by the company Genelex<BR/>asked readers, “Do you need to confirm that you are of Native American descent?” Genelex<BR/>claims that its Ancestry DNA Test reveals genetic markers that are “unique to Native<BR/>Americans”, making it “the only scientifically rigorous method available” for “validating . . .<BR/>eligibility for government entitlements such as Native American Rights”.<BR/>Tall Bear & Bolnick 2<BR/>Two features of this ad epitomize the problems with Native American DNA testing and the<BR/>way it is hyped by DNA testing companies. First, the claim that these tests identify uniquely<BR/>Native American markers is not completely accurate: some of the genetic markers used in these<BR/>tests are found only in Native Americans, but many are not. This claim therefore exaggerates<BR/>what DNA can tell us about ancestry and ethnic identity, and implies a greater correspondence<BR/>between genetic markers and ethnic groups than really exists. We further explain such<BR/>problems with the science behind these tests later in this article. Second, although Genelex<BR/>describes its test as validating rather than determining eligibility for Native American rights,<BR/>careful use of verbs does not diminish the central message that DNA testing proves Native<BR/>American identity in a scientifically objective manner. The implication is that successful DNA<BR/>test takers should have the right to access Native American “government entitlements” whether<BR/>or not they belong to federally-recognized tribes. Other DNA testing companies suggest that<BR/>test results can also be used to qualify for ethnicity-specific scholarships and race-based college<BR/>admissions.<BR/>However, eligibility for Native American rights is ultimately a political and cultural issue that<BR/>will never be satisfactorily answered by genetics.<BR/>Native American tribes need to ask themselves, “since when does a genetic test rather than<BR/>government get to decide who is Native American and therefore eligible for Native American<BR/>rights?” For 150 years, Native American rights have been determined by legal criteria that<BR/>support the idea of tribal sovereignty. Are tribes willing to give up authority to the scientists,<BR/>entrepreneurs, and investors who run DNA testing companies and who seem less familiar with<BR/>Native American politics and history?<BR/>Tribal sovereignty and legal rights are contentious in American politics today. States, industry,<BR/>and others wage expensive legal battles to challenge tribes’ rights to govern their lands and<BR/>citizenries or to exist at all. There are also many American citizens who may not realize that<BR/>tribes are political entities and not simply quaint ethnic groups. Some of these romanticize<BR/>Native America and search with heavy emotional investment for a Native American ancestor<BR/>that is sometimes real and sometimes imagined.<BR/>Given the current political and cultural environment, many Americans might sooner look to<BR/>DNA than to tribal and federal law to determine who is Native American and who can access<BR/>Native American rights.<BR/>Because tribal and federal law focus on tribal group relations, cultural continuity, and a tribal<BR/>land-base, many individuals with Native American biological ancestors are nonetheless<BR/>ineligible for federally-recognized tribal status or tribal enrollment. When law fails to recognize<BR/>them as Native American, these individuals may turn to DNA testing. For example, after<BR/>failing to meet federal recognition standards, a group calling themselves the “Western Mohegan<BR/>Tribe and Nation” attempted to use DNA analysis to prove their Native American identity in<BR/>order to get into the gaming business. Although their efforts were unsuccessful, hopes of<BR/>gaming profits may motivate others to seek recognition in this manner, and tribal sovereignty<BR/>could be undermined as a result.<BR/>Tall Bear & Bolnick 3<BR/>Indeed, some early signs suggest that DNA testing could become a legal requirement for<BR/>proving Native American affiliation even if opposed by tribes. After the 9,000 year old remains<BR/>known as “Kennewick Man” were unearthed in 1996, DNA analysis was authorized to help<BR/>determine his “cultural affiliation” despite opposition from the tribes claiming the remains<BR/>under the Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act. DNA testing proved<BR/>unsuccessful because too little DNA was preserved in the bones for analysis, but a precedent<BR/>has been set. Legislation has also been proposed in at least one state (Vermont) that would<BR/>require DNA testing to prove the Native American affiliation of both human remains and<BR/>individuals seeking state recognition.<BR/>Can DNA be useful to federally-recognized tribes?<BR/>A few federally-recognized tribes, such as the Mashantucket Pequot of Connecticut, have<BR/>considered using Native American DNA tests for enrollment purposes. For the Pequot, as for<BR/>other wealthy casino tribes, the financial stakes of enrollment are high: the Pequot disburse<BR/>monthly payments to each member totaling thousands of dollars. If DNA could exclude those<BR/>who cannot legitimately claim Pequot ancestry, the financial benefits for the remaining tribal<BR/>members would be great.<BR/>However, these Native American DNA tests rarely (if ever) identify genetic markers for<BR/>particular tribes. Because no tribe has been completely isolated from other human groups<BR/>throughout history, very few genetic markers are present only in the members of one tribe. In<BR/>all likelihood, genetic markers found in the Pequot also exist in many other tribes.<BR/>Consequently, adoption of a DNA-based enrollment policy might actually expand the number<BR/>of individuals qualifying for tribal enrollment because individuals without Pequot ancestry<BR/>could claim membership based on the shared genetic markers.<BR/>This example should serve as a red flag to tribes: enrollment policies based on DNA alone could<BR/>backfire. Furthermore, because individual identity is shaped by more than genetic ancestry,<BR/>other enrollment criteria might be better able to meet the needs of land-based tribal nations.<BR/>Reservation residence or tribal community involvement, for example, can help ensure that tribal<BR/>members are also culturally connected to the tribe and committed to its future.<BR/>Some companies may encourage the notion that genetic ancestry alone makes an Indian,<BR/>though, because there is a potentially lucrative market in such over-simplification. For<BR/>example, the DNA testing company DNAToday has teamed up with DCI America (a for-profit<BR/>tribal management consulting firm) to sell “genetic identification systems” to tribes. Their $320-<BR/>per-person photo ID cards sport computer chips and list specific DNA markers. DNAToday<BR/>advocates tribal-wide DNA testing, and claims that their product is “100% reliable in terms of<BR/>creating accurate answers” to questions of tribal enrollment. But one must ask, “which<BR/>questions do they answer?”<BR/>DNAToday’s test is simply a paternity test that confirms an individual’s biological parentage.<BR/>While this could help demonstrate an enrollment applicant’s relationship to an ancestor on the<BR/>tribe’s base roll, that relationship can usually be documented through other less expensive<BR/>means (such as birth certificates and the enrollment documents of parents and grandparents).<BR/>When it can’t, many tribes already use paternity tests. Thus, in many cases, DNAToday’s<BR/>Tall Bear & Bolnick 4<BR/>products are redundant and cost exorbitant. The cost would range from tens of thousands of<BR/>dollars for small tribes to tens of millions for the largest tribes, and few tribes would gain much<BR/>new or useful information.<BR/>The science of Native American DNA testing<BR/>DNA testing for Native American identity and enrollment is clearly problematic on a social,<BR/>cultural, and political front. But what about the science behind such tests? There are problems<BR/>there too. The tests can fail to detect Native American ancestry in individuals with Native<BR/>American ancestors, and incorrectly identify it in others who do not have such ancestors.<BR/>First, Native American DNA tests examine only a small proportion of the test taker’s DNA.<BR/>Most tests fall into one of two categories: mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) tests and Ychromosome<BR/>tests. MtDNA tests examine DNA that is inherited only from one’s mother (and<BR/>her mother, and her mother before her...). Y-chromosome tests examine DNA that is passed<BR/>down from grandfather to father to son (and so on). These tests examine less than 1% of the test<BR/>taker’s DNA, and shed light on only one maternal or paternal ancestor. Thus, even if all of your<BR/>grandparents were Native American except for your mother’s mother, a mtDNA test would still<BR/>fail to detect Native American ancestry.<BR/>Second, DNA tests may certify some individuals as having Native American ancestry when in<BR/>fact they do not. These tests use the following logic: if a genetic marker is common in Native<BR/>Americans, and you have the marker, you are probably Native American. The problem is that<BR/>‘common’ is not the same as ‘only found in’ Native Americans. Given the high level of genetic<BR/>variation within all human populations, relatively few markers are restricted to a single group<BR/>in this way. In fact, not all “Native American” markers used in the DNA tests are actually<BR/>found only in Native Americans. Some of the markers are most common in Native American<BR/>populations, so any individual with those markers most likely has Native American ancestry.<BR/>But because such markers can still be found in non-Native American populations, just at lower<BR/>frequencies, Native American DNA tests may falsely identify some individuals as having<BR/>Native American ancestry.<BR/>Such “false positives” may be responsible for the more perplexing results of these tests. Several<BR/>come from DNAPrint’s AncestrybyDNA test, which examines 175 markers found throughout<BR/>the genome to estimate the test taker’s “ancestral proportions” (% Native American, %<BR/>European, % East Asian, and % African). Based on their test results, DNAPrint claims that most<BR/>Mediterranean Europeans, Middle Easterners, Jews, and South Asian Indians have Native<BR/>American ancestry. If, however, some of the markers they consider diagnostic of Native<BR/>American ancestry are really not, then such results are not accurate and the reliability of this test<BR/>is cast into doubt.<BR/>Thus, Native American DNA tests do not provide foolproof answers to questions of Native<BR/>American ancestry. In many cases, their results are accurate and informative. But in others,<BR/>they fail to detect such ancestry in individuals with Native American ancestors, and they<BR/>incorrectly identify it in others. The appropriate use of such imperfect tests must be considered<BR/>carefully.<BR/>Tall Bear & Bolnick 5<BR/>Conclusion: Can DNA tell us anything about Native American identity?<BR/>Ultimately, the answer to this question depends on how we define “Native American”. Up<BR/>until now, the definition has incorporated ideas of tribal citizenship and sovereignty,<BR/>acculturation as a Native American, and biological ancestry.<BR/>But now that genetics carries such cultural power, we face several pressing questions: Will<BR/>Native American identities and rights that have been reckoned through a combination of<BR/>kinship ideas, law, and policy now be reckoned increasingly through DNA? Will DNA tests be<BR/>required in law and policy? Will prevailing cultural notions of kin, race, and genetic ancestry<BR/>undermine tribal notions of kin that emphasize a close cultural connection to the tribe? How<BR/>will the focus on DNA affect ongoing U.S. negotiations with tribal nations? Tribes need to<BR/>consider these possibilities carefully.ரவி ஸ்ரீநிவாஸ்https://www.blogger.com/profile/10176389904737294055noreply@blogger.comtag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5843645.post-1115091749443464302005-05-02T23:42:00.000-04:002005-05-02T23:42:00.000-04:00இது குறித்து பூர்விககுடி மக்கள் என்னதான் கூறுகிறார...இது குறித்து பூர்விககுடி மக்கள் என்னதான் கூறுகிறார்கள் என்பதை முதலில் படியுங்கள். இது போன்ற சோதனைகளைச் செய்வதால் ஏற்படும் குழப்பங்கள் குறித்தும் அவர்கள் கூறுகிறார்கள். நீ 100% பூர்விகம் இல்லை என் மரபணுவில் உன்னைவிட பூர்விகத்தன்மை அதிகள் என்றெல்லாம் வாதிடுவது அபத்தமாகக் தோன்றலாம்.அதுதான் நடக்கிறது. இன்று இனம் அதாவது ரேஸ் என்பது குறித்த சமூக அறிவியல் கண்ணோட்டம் மாறிவிட்டது, ஆனால் நாராயணன் எழுதியதில் ஒரு மிகவும் பழைய கலாவதியான கண்ணோட்டமே வெளிப்படுகிறது வந்தேறிகள் என்றெல்லாம் எழுதுவதில் உள்ள அரசியல் எனக்குத் தெரியும்.தமிழ் நாட்டில் முன்பு பிராமணர்களை அப்படிக் கூறினார்கள். இப்போது தமிழ் தேசிய வாதிகள் தெலுங்கு பேசுவோரை அப்படிக் கூறுகிறார்கள்.ஏப்ரல் உயிர்மையில் மார்க்ஸ் எழுதியுள்ள கட்டுரையினைப் படியுங்கள். சங்க பரிவாரங்கள் இந்தியாவில் உள்ள முஸ்லீம்கள் பலரை பங்களாதேஷிலிருந்து வந்த வந்தேறிகள் என்று சொல்லி விரட்டிவிடத் துடிக்கிறார்கள்.என்னால் விரிவாக எழுத முடியும்.அதற்கு இப்போது நேரமில்லை.Anonymousnoreply@blogger.comtag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5843645.post-1115085553580209942005-05-02T21:59:00.000-04:002005-05-02T21:59:00.000-04:00மாண்ட்ரீசர்,ஆமாம் இதைத் தான் தேடினேன். நன்றி.ஷ்ரேய...மாண்ட்ரீசர்,<BR/><BR/>ஆமாம் இதைத் தான் தேடினேன். நன்றி.<BR/><BR/>ஷ்ரேயா,<BR/><BR/>இன்னமும் இல்லை. என் நூலகத்தில் தேடிப் பார்க்கின்றேன். நன்றி<BR/><BR/><BR/>நாரயண், ஸ்ரீரங்கன்,<BR/><BR/>நன்றி,<BR/><BR/>ரவி ஸ்ரினிவாஸ்,<BR/><BR/>இந்தச் சோதனைகள் கட்டாயமாக்கப் படவேண்டும் என்று யாரும் சொன்னதாக தெரியவில்லை. எல்லா "நோக்கங்களையும்" எல்லாவகை சந்தேகங்களுக்கும் உட்படுத்த்தி ஆராய்வதை யாரும் குற்றமும் காணப்போவதில்லை. ஆனால் அமெச்சூர்களான, அதை வெளியிலும் வெளிப்படையாகச் சொன்னவர்களிடம் "utter nonsense" என்பதெல்லாம் அதீதமான கமெண்ட்டாக தெரியவில்லையா? ஏதோ விவாதம் செய்து உங்களிடம் சண்டை போட்டது போல வந்து கமெண்ட் சொல்வது என்ன நியாயம். நீங்கள் இந்த துறையினை நன்கு அறிந்தவராக இருப்பின், கை காட்டுவது தானே முறையாகும். உள்ளே பூந்து தாம் தூம் என்பது எந்த விதத்தில் நியாயம். அதன் காரணமாகவே அந்த வகையில் கருத்து தெரிவித்திருந்தேன். நன்றி,<BR/><BR/>அனாதைஅனாதை ஆனந்தன்https://www.blogger.com/profile/00874252583190878199noreply@blogger.comtag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5843645.post-1115021174775229842005-05-02T04:06:00.000-04:002005-05-02T04:06:00.000-04:00அருமையான மொழியாக்கம்.அற்புதமான பதிவு.தொடருங்கள்அன்...அருமையான மொழியாக்கம்.அற்புதமான பதிவு.தொடருங்கள்<BR/>அன்புடன்<BR/>சிறிரங்கன்Sri Ranganhttps://www.blogger.com/profile/09423249134211923939noreply@blogger.comtag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5843645.post-1115011496136860432005-05-02T01:24:00.000-04:002005-05-02T01:24:00.000-04:00why is that you people are refusing to acknowledge...why is that you people are refusing to acknowledge that indigenous people have serious objections to that.why none of you have bothered to read what they say.i am amazed by your naive faith in science.ரவி ஸ்ரீநிவாஸ்https://www.blogger.com/profile/10176389904737294055noreply@blogger.comtag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5843645.post-1115005734632814022005-05-01T23:48:00.000-04:002005-05-01T23:48:00.000-04:00சுவாரசியமாக இருக்கிறது. மரபணு ஆய்வில் குழப்பங்கள் ...சுவாரசியமாக இருக்கிறது. மரபணு ஆய்வில் குழப்பங்கள் இருந்தாலும், நீங்கள் சொல்வதுபோல அதன் ஆதிஅந்தங்கள் புரிய தொடங்கும். எல்லோரும் ஒரினம் என்று சொல்வதின் மூலமும், நிறைய குறுக்குச்சான்றுகள் பெறுவதன் மூலமும், நிறைய மத நிறுவனங்களின் வயிற்றில் மண்ணள்ளிப் போடலாம். அதனால், இதனை முதன்மையாக எதிர்ப்பவர்கள் அவர்களாக தான் இருப்பார்கள். இது தாண்டி, இது அவசியம் உலகளவில் செய்யப்படவேண்டும். என்பதிவில் பத்மா அரவிந்த் எழுப்பியிருந்த கேள்விகளில் (காப்பீடு, நோய்த்தன்மை போன்றவைகள்) நியாங்கள் இருந்தாலும், இவை கொஞ்ச நாளில் தீர்க்கக்கூடிய பிரச்சனைகளாகிவிடும். ஆனால், முழுமூச்சாக இதனால் பயனில்லை, இதை வைத்துக் கொண்டு மனித இனத்தின் வரலாற்றினை இடப்பெயர்ச்சியினை அளக்கமுடியாது என்பது பீலா. சிலபேர்கள் அப்படி சொல்வதின் மூலம் என்ன சொல்ல வருகிறார்கள் என்று தெரியவில்லை.Narain Rajagopalanhttps://www.blogger.com/profile/14540588654670738804noreply@blogger.comtag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5843645.post-1115003159507709652005-05-01T23:05:00.000-04:002005-05-01T23:05:00.000-04:00dont bother about what i have written.i had given ...dont bother about what i have written.i had given a link to a site that represents indigenous peoples views on this project.why is that you are unwilling even to have a look at that but write silly comments on what i have written. <BR/>if you read my comments as well as what has been translated by you and the site i have cited you may<BR/>understand something.indigenous people have raised some questions about this project.why is that none of you is willing to even<BR/>understand that.who knows you may even see a conspiracy there.Anonymousnoreply@blogger.comtag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5843645.post-1115001570812670852005-05-01T22:39:00.000-04:002005-05-01T22:39:00.000-04:00have you readthis bookhave you read<BR/><A HREF="http://www.angusrobertson.com.au/products/detailed.asp?bookid=0552152188" REL="nofollow">this book</A>`மழை` ஷ்ரேயா(Shreya)https://www.blogger.com/profile/14168362608497167945noreply@blogger.comtag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5843645.post-1114998974845472732005-05-01T21:56:00.000-04:002005-05-01T21:56:00.000-04:00இதையா சொல்கிறீர்கள்? இது தொடர்பாக பத்மா அரவிந்தை ப...<A HREF="http://dystocia.blogspot.com/2005/02/blog-post_20.html" REL="nofollow">இதையா</A> சொல்கிறீர்கள்? இது தொடர்பாக பத்மா அரவிந்தை பாலாஜி-பாரியின் பேட்டி எடுத்திருந்ததிலும் குறிப்பிட்டிருந்தேன். அது <A HREF="http://paari.weblogs.us/archives/67#comments" REL="nofollow">இங்கே</A>சன்னாசிhttps://www.blogger.com/profile/05843947360220535069noreply@blogger.com